TDT4252: Enterprise Architecture for Enterprise Innovation
Virksomhetsarkitektur og Innovasjon
Terminology
Information systems:
“An information system is made of all the pieces of data and information used/stored/processed for the needs of the users and applications of enterprises” (Vernadat 1996).
Conceptual Model:
A conceptual model represents 'concepts' (entities) and relationships between them.
Modelling:
To describe a set of abstract or concrete phenomena in a structured, and eventually, in a formal way.
Modelling Language:
The outcome of the modelling process is documented using a modelling language, which can be classified as textual and visual languages.
Model:
- A model is a generalized representation of a piece of reality, with only relevant real-world properties taken into account during modelling.
- A model is anything used in any way to represent anything else. It can be a physical object, a mathematical or logical representation, a conceptualization of something.
- It is more abstract, usually less comprehensive, and normally cheaper to create than what it models.
- It is important to select which parts to represent as a model.
Enterprise Model:
A consistent set of special purpose and complementary models describing the various facets of an enterprise to satisfy some purpose of some business users.
Model View
- A specific aspect of a system or situation that is modelled, e.g. the functional view of the system.
- The contents of the model viewed a from a particular perspective, e.g. the contents that a particular user is interested in.
Why Model
- Study problems encountered - why something happened or is happening?
- How can business or work processes be improved?
- Ideal process - design robust process for any situation.
- Models can help identify information systems and requirements.
- Models can help management understand fully the business they manage.
Purpose
- To represent and understand how the enterprise works.
- To capitalize acuired knowledge and know-how for later use.
- To rationalize and secure information.
- To (re)design and specify a part of an enterprise.
- To analyze some aspects of the enterprise (economic analysis, organizational, qualitative, etc.)
- To simulate the behaviour of some parts of the enterprise.
- To make better decisions about enterprise operations and organization.
- To control, coordinate or monitor some parts of the enterprise.
Model
A model is a generalized representation of a piece of reality, with only relevant real-world properties taken into account during modeling.
Characteristics of a general model: Mapping: Models are mappings or representations of real or abstract originals, which may, in turn, be models themselves. Reduction: Models contain only those attributes of the corresponding original which are relevant for the purpose. * Pragmatism: Models are not inherently assigned to a specific original. They are utilized by a model-using subject within a particular time frame "and within the constraint of certain conceptual or actual operations."
Modelling
Modelling means essentially to describe a set of abstract or concrete phenomena in a structured and, eventually, in a formal way. Describing, modelling and drawing is a key technique to support human understand, reasoning and communication.
Understanding organizational dependencies
Capture and document organizational aspects, such as structures and processes, in an explicit and understandable form.
Can be used for: Training new employees and introducing them to the current practices of an enterprise. Planning a new product variant of customer service. Identifying dependencies of the information systems and IT-applications in an enterprise and analyzing the IT-support for different tasks and work processes. Setting up the cooperation with a new partner or supplier.
Enterprise Modeling: Definitions
- An enterprise model is a consistent set of special-purpose and complementary models describing various facets of an enterprise to satisfy some purpose of some business users.
- A computational representation of the structure, activities, processes, information, resources, people, behaviour, goals and constraints of a business, government, or other enterprise.
- Enterprise modelling is the set of activities or processes used to develop the various parts of an enterprise model to address some desired modelling finality.
- A collective name for the use of models in Enterprise Engineering and Enterprise Integration.
- The contents of the enterprise model is whatever the business user considers important to describe.
Modeling Language
The outcome of the modelling process is documented using modeling languages, which can be classified as textual and visual languages. In enterprise modelling, visual languages with diagrammatic representations are common.
Aligning Organizational Strategy and IT
Possible ways to use enterprise modeling: Goal modeling and problem modeling involving business and professionals in order to create a better understanding of the concerns, limitations and priorities from a business or an IT perspective. For the most important future business areas or the most relevant strategic developments, the dependencies between products or services and IT can be modeled as well as the dependencies between the core business process and IT systems can be visualized. * In case when business and IT development is congruent EM is used to elaborate and compare different strategies for achieving the business intentions.
Meta-Model
- Visual modeling languages are frequently defined by grammers (like programming languages), but by meta-models.
- A meta-model essentially is a concept model of a modeling language - a model of the modeling language. (Tenk den oversiktsmodellen av 4EM)
- It abstracts from the model in question and shows only its graphical symbols and their possible connections.
Enterprise Integration
Five principles of Behavioural and Information Integration
- When people understand the vision, they will do the right thing.
- Empowered people.
- Comperhensive and effective communications network.
- Democratization and dissemination of information throughout the network.
- Information freely shared with empowered people, distributing the decision process throughout the organization.
Achieving integration requires an Information Infrastructure that supports the communication of information and knowledge, the making of decisions and the coordination of actions.
At the heart of this infrastructure lies a model of the enterprise.
Agility
- The key to remain competitive
Being agile implies that enterprises must be able to change or adapt easily.
4 strategic principles of agility:
- An entrepreneurial organization strategy
- Invest to increase the strategic impact of people and information on the bottom line
- Use the virtual organization strategy as a dynamic structure both inside and outside the enterprise
- Adopt a value-base strategy to configure your product and services into solutions for your customer
Virtual Enterprise
A virtual enterprise (VE) has the following characteristics:
- They are goal-oriented
- Autonomous entities that collaborate
- Distributed and heterogeneous
- Has a limited lifetime
- Basicly, A team of partners (humans, organizations or software agents) that collaborate to achieve a specific goal.
## Role of an Enterprise Model
## Challenges with Enterprise Modelling
- All enterprise functions do not share the same Enterprise Model - Correspondence problem.
- Each enterprise model may have the same concepts, but they may use different names for them.
- Some translation of concepts is required for communication.
- The concepts and representation lack adequate specifications of what the concept means.
- Legacy systems - enterprises have their data in independent systems.
- Cost of designing, building and maintaining an enterprise model is huge.
Generic Enterprise Model (GEM)
An object library that defines the classes of objects that are generic across a type of enterprise, such as manufacturing or banking, and can be used (that is instantiated) in defining a specific enterprise.
GEM is composed of:
- A set of object classes with sub- and super-class relationships
- For each object class is a set of relations linking to other object classes, plus the meaning of the relation
- For each object class is a set of attributes, plus the meaning of each attribute
Benefits of GEM:
- Predefined object library – allows the modeller to quickly move on to model instantiation.
- Path for growth – Benefit from the experience of others.
- Shared conceptualization – by adopting a GEM the other parts of the organization stand a greater chance of understanding what is represented in the Enterprise Model.
Commonsense Enterprise Models (CEM)
- The usefulness of an instantiated GEM is determined by the functions it can support, e.g. scheduling, forecasting etc.
- We should be able to query the model and obtain answers to support the organization.
- Three types of queries:
- Factual: Direct retrieval of information, surface level processing --> e.g. Relational database
- Expert: Requires that the information system has extensive knowledge, deep-level processing, supports some reasoning.
- Common Sense: Requires that the information system are able to deduce answers to questions that one would normally assume can be answered if one has common sense understanding of the enterprise.
Example of common sense knowledge:
Organizational structure, roles, goals and resources would enable the deduction of what resources a person might allocate based on his/her role in the organization.
We refer to it as shallow-level processing: retrieval that requires a small number of deductions to answer the query.
From GEM to Dynamic Enterprise Models (DEMs)
- GEMs can be of two types:
- GEMs without axioms where deductions are specified by a query.
- GEMs with axioms that support deduction: DEM
- DEMs would be able to answer queries like "Who does Joe work for?"
- A DEM possesses common sense if the axioms define the meaning of the relations and attributes in the object library.
Benefits of Enterprise modelling
- To build a common enterprise culture and shared vision to be communicated through the enterprise via the model, used as a common language.
- To capitalize enterprise knowledge and know-how to build an enterprise memory, which becomes a part of the enterprise assets.
- To support decision making concerning enterprise improvement or control.
Description of 4EM
Overview
4Em modelling Language includes the following sub-models
- Goal model
- Concept model
- Business process model
- Actor and resources model
- Business role model
- Technical component and requirement model
Goal Model - Purpose
- To describe what the enterprise and its employees want to achieve, or to avoid and when.
- To describe the goals of the enterprise along with the problems associated with achieving the goals
- To explain why, or why not, processes, rules and requirements exist or do not exist.
Goal Model - Components
Goal: expressing goals of the business or state of business affairs the organizations wishes to achieve. May be expressed as a measurable set of states, or as general aims, visions or direction. A goal can be needs, requirements, desired states, etc.
Problem: for expressing that the environment is, or may become, in some non-desirable state, which hinders the achievement of goals. Problems can be devided into "threat" or "weakness".
Constraint: expressing business restrictions, rules, laws, policies from the outside, affecting components and links within the Enterprise Model.
Opportunity: expressing situations that we may want to take advantage of. If so - should be turned into a goal.
Goal model - Issues
- Where should the organization be moving?
- Which are the goals of the organization?
- Which opportunities and strengths exist?
- What is the importance, critical and priorities of goals?
- How are goals related to each other (conflict, support)?
- Which problems (threat, weaknesses) are hindering achievement of goals?
- Ambiguity in expressing goals in a challenge.
- Ambiguous, uncertain goal: "Extra money" - BAD
- Clearly stated goal: "The goal is to have an external finance source of 500K NOK in 3 years" - GOOD
Concept model - Purpose
- To define the "things" and "phenomena" one is talking about in the other models.
- To define more strictly the expressions in the goal model as well as the content of resources in the Business Process Model
Concept model - Components
Concepts: Something in the domain of interest and application that we want to reason about and to characterize and define using relationship entities.
Attribute: Concept which is used to characterize a concept. It is a property of the type of objects referenced by the characterized concept.
Concept model - Relationships
Binary relationship semantic relationship between two Concepts or within a Concept.
ISA relationship specific kind of semantic relationship between Concepts. If "A" ISA "B", then "B" is the more generic concept, and A is the specific concept. Establishing this kind of relationships is also referred to as generalization. The opposite or inverse of generalization, is called specialization
PartOF relationship special form of semantic relationship, where the interrelated Concepts are "strongly and tightly coupled" to each other. The aggregate object is an assembly of parts, and the parts are components of the aggregate.
Concept model - Issues
- What is the "business language" used?
- What concepts are relevant for the enterprise (including their relationships to goals, activities and processes and actors)?
- How are they defined?
- How are their attributes defined?
- How are the Concepts related to one another?
- Which businesses rules and constraints monitor these concepts?
Business process model
Purpose To define Enterprise Processes, the way they interact and the way they handle information as well as material
Process is a collection of activities that:
- Consumes input and produces output in term of information and/or material:
- Is controlled by a set of rules, indicating how to process the inputs and produce the outputs:
- Has a relationship to the actors and resource model, in terms of the performer of, or responsible for a process, and
- as an instance of a business process model is expected to consume, when a initiated, a finite amount of resources and time.
Business process model - Components
Process is a collection of activities
External process is a collection of activities that are:
- Located outside the scope of the organization
- Communicating with processes or activities outside of the problem domain area
- External processes sometimes can be considered as sources or terminators for some information or material flow.
Information or material set is a set of information or material sent form on process to another.
Business process model - Issues
- Which business activities and processes are there, or should be there, in order to manage the organization in agreement with the goals?
- How should the business processes, task, etc. be preformed?
- What are their information need?
- What are the related concepts?
- Which are the material flows?
- How are the processes related to organizational actors?
Actors and Resources Model
Purpose: Describe how different organizational actors and resources are related to each other and how they relate to different components of the other models.
Actors and Resources Model - Components
Individual denotes a person in the enterprise.
Organizational unit can represent every organizational structure in the enterprise such as a group, department, division, section, project, team, subsidiary, etc.
Non-human resources can be types of machines, systems of different kinds, equipment, etc.
Roles may be played by the Individuals and Organisational units in different contexts. An organisational unit may for instance play the roles of administrator and authoriser in the same context.
Actors and Resources Model - Relationships
Responsibility is a relationship between two actors, between actors and business processes, business rules, and goals.
Dependency is a relation among enterprise actors. An actor depends on another for something that can be either a resource or a business process.
Business Rule Model
Purpose: to define and maintain business rules, consistent with the Goal Model. May be seen as operationalisation or limits of goals.
Business Rule Model - Components
Event-action rules a set of triggering conditions and/or a set of preconditions that must be satisfied before their execution. – "If the return of a loan is more than 4 days over-due, send a reminder”. Constraint rules are concerned with the integrity of the information structure components, or with the enterprise activities and their permitted behaviour. E.g. – “the salary of an employee must not decrease”
Key points
- Goal modelling is to describe the goals of the enterprise along with problems associated with achieving these goals.
- Concept modelling is used to define the "thing" and "phenomena" in the other (sub-) models, i.e. to define expressions in the goal model as well as the content of resources in the business process model.
- Business process modelling is used to define enterprise processes, the way they interact and the way they handle information as well as material.
- Actor and resource modelling is used to describe how different organisational actors and resources are related to each other and how they are related to components of the 4EM sub-model.
- Business rule modelling in the 4EM is used to define and maintain explicity formulated business rules, consistent with the goal model.
- Technical components and requirements model is an aid in defining requirements for the development of an information system and focuses attention on the technical system needed in order to support the goals, processes, and actors of the enterprise.
- The different 4EM results models (sub-models) should be connected with each other in order ti visualize relationships and dependencies to fully support the analysis of the enterprise.
IDEF0 Modelling
IDEF Languages
- ICAM (Integrated Computer Aided Manufacturing)
- IDEF = ICAM DEFinition Language
- Originated in the 1970s, in the USA Air Force and the ICAM program
- Initially intended for use in systems engineering
- IDEF0 : for functional modelling
- Later a suite of languages: IDEF1, IDEF2... for more advanced modelling
- This course focuses on IDEF0
IDEF0
- IDEF0 : for functional modelling
- The functions that are preformed
- What is needed to preform those functions
- Models the decisions, actions and activities of an organisation or system, in order to communicate the functional perspectice of a system
- Originally, IDEF was developed to enhance communication among people trying to understand the system. Now, IDEF is being used for documentation, understanding, design, analysis, planning and integration.
IDEF0: Syntax
A model of a function at the highest level of inputs, outputs, controls and mechanisms
Inputs: Items that trigger or are transformed in the activity. - Can be a trigger - Input that is transformed to output
Controls: guide or regulate the activity. - Guide or regulate activity - !!! Distinction between input and control: inputs change, controls remain unchanged.
Mechanisms: resources used to perform the activity. - People - Equipment, IT - Financial resources
Outpus: results of the activity or items processed or transformed. - Results of a preforming activity
Dependency & Flow
Dependency: One process depends on another Flow: Something flows between processes: Information, material
IDEF0 and 4EM
IDEF0 and ArchiMate
IDEF0: Benefits
- Supports understanding of the organisation
- Helps improve our knowledge about the organsisation
- Supports decision making
- Supports planning and improvement(e.g. by adding new processes easily)
IDEF0: Strenghts & Weaknesses
-
Strengths:
- Effective in detailing the system activities for function modelling.
- Provide a concise description of systems, by using the ICOMs (Input, Control, Output, Mechanism).
- The hierarchical nature allows the system to be easily refined into greater detail.
-
Weaknesses
- Can be so concise that only domain experts can understand
- Can be misinterpreted as representing a sequence of activities.
- Limited support of the behavioural aspects of the process that is supported in e.g BPMN.
Discussion: IDEF0
- Is IDEF0 functional modelling or process modelling or both?
- How can you use IDEF0 link to the other modelling methods.
- How does IDEF0 link to the other modeling methinds and languages we have looked at?
- How does BPMN compare to IDEF0?
- How does BPMN link to the other modelling methods and languages we have looked at?
Participatory Enterprise Modeling
Elicitation Approaches in Enterprise Modelling
"Enterprise models represent the situation within the enterprise in question, both in terms of current and the future state of affairs. This is only possible if the modeller is able to correctly and fully obtain/elict relevant knowledge from within the enterprise. Elicitation approaches are essential for the purpose."
- Interviews
- Observations
- Document Analysis
- Self-recording
- Participatory
- In a participatory workshop, a group of stakeholders of the problem at hand and modelling experts create enterprise models together.
- Each workshop has specific goal and is facilitated by the modelling experts.
What do we mean by participation?
Different degrees of participation and influence by the stakeholder of a change.
Participatory Design
Four dimensions along which participation by users could be measured.
- Directness of interaction with the designers.
- Length of involvement in the design process.
- Scope of participation in the overall system being designed.
- Degree of control over the design decisions.
Why user participation and involvement?
- Morally right
- Ensure change is carried forward
- Improved solution
- Improved ownership/motivation, better implementation
A participatory approach requires:
- Active communication and lively discussions leading to a joint decision based on different views.
- Creating a group: people feel they are working towards a common goal and increases the chance of achieving good results.
- Aims to make stakeholders more active participants in the modelling and decision making process.
- To create EMs is a participatory approach, a modelling expert is needed.
- They can take on several roles:
- Project leader
- Facilitator or moderator
- Tool expert
- Modelling team, led by the project leader.
- They can take on several roles:
Participative modelling: roles
- Problem owner: being responsible for establishing the modelling activity within the enterprise, selecting the right personnel resources, arranging meeting, etc.
- Domain experts/stakeholders providing knowledge about the domain under consideration.
- Facilitator providing expertise in using the selected modelling process and tool as well as supporting the modelling process and model development by coaching the modellers.
- Modelling expert having in-depth knowledge in the modelling method and tools.
- Tool operator responsible for documenting the enterprise models in the computerized tool during the modeling process.
Enterprise Modelling Process
- Define a problem
- Define requirements
- Establish a modeling project
- Navigate between stakeholders' wishes and goals
- Assess impact
Model Evaluation
Ways to evaluate models: Competency questions Can the model answer queries as though it has common sense about the enterprise Commonsense queries: - Ability to answer queries as though the model has a common sense understanding of the enterprise. - Such an understanding often represents knowledge about the enterprise acquired over a relative short time and does not require expert knowledge. - Examples of such knowledge: organisational structure, roles, goals and resources would enable the deduction of what resources a person might allocate based on his/her role in the organisation.
Characteristics of Enterprice Models:
The need for Evaluation
- We need to know when the modelling is complete
- We need to be able to judge the correctness of representation
Quality of models, SEQUAL
SEQUAL
A framework for understanding and assessing quality of models based on semiotics For models as a knowledge representation in general Can be extended and specialised towards specific types of model and modelling langauages -> Here enterprise modelling. Structuring existing material on quality of models and modelling languages Differentiate between quality of different levels based on semiotic theory Differentiate between goals of modelling (quality characteristics) and means to achieve these goals Set-oritented definition to enable a formal discussion of the different quality-levels Cover bith subjective and objective aspects of quality Takes into account that models are socially constructed
Sets in the quality framework
- G: The goals of modelling
- A: Actors that develops or has to relate (parts of) the model. Can be persons or tools (technical actors)
- L: What can be expressed in the modelling language (means of representation)
- M: What is expressed in the model
- D: What can be expressed about the domain (area of interest) which is relevant to fulfill G (goals of modelling)
- K: The expicit knowledge of the participant about the domain D
- I: What the persons in the audience interpret the model to express
- T What relevant tools interpret the model to say
All of these sets evolves as part of modelling
Different types of goals possible for the same model - example from a case
- Communication and sense-making around models of the current state
- The models developed should help sharing best practice between different units of the organisation.
- The models developed should be helpful in the refining of the processes.
- Communication around models of the future state
- The new work process should be documented through the models
- The models developed should help harmonise the current work processes across different parts of the organisation.
- The models developed should be used to teach the software developers about the domain.
- Computer-assisted analysis
- The models developed should help analyse the current work process
- Model deployment
- The models developed should be used as a procedural tool in everyday work.
- The models developed should support the use of the software application developed for processsupport.
- Context for change
- The models developed should define the scope of the software application
SEQUAL
Overall structure of framework
- Quality type (physical, empirical...)
- One or more quality characteristics per quiality type
- Means to achieve the quality characteristics
- One or more quality characteristics per quiality type
Physical Quality
Internalisability - Model presistence - Model availability to relevant actors - Currency - Security
Tool support - Database functionality (model repository) - Collaborative modelling functionality
Empirical Quality
- Look on aspects related to
- Ergonomics
- Graph and document layput
- Readability (of textual parts of model)
- The model must be externalised (physical quality)
- Language properties
- Expressive economy
- Use of emphasis including color
- Modellibg and tool-supported activities
- (Automatic) graph-layout, readability index, grammar checking, eavluation of use of color
Astethics
- Reading direction
- From left to right
- From top to bottom
- Labels
- Align lables left or centered
- Elements should not be significally bigger than their labels
- Highlights headlines/important elements
- Relations should not obstruct text
- Pay attention to different presentation formats
- Laptop display vs. projector vs printed
Alignment of model elements
- Minimize aligment points
- Arrange elements in a wat that there are as few horizontal and vertical points as possible
- Equidistance
- If possivle plave all elements at the same distance to eachother
- Annotations
- Textual annotations to element should not exceed the size of the element and should be aligned close to it
- Distance
- Don't place elements and relations too close to each other
Alignment of relations
- Do not cross other relations or elements
- Keep relations as short as possible
- Minimize intersections
- Avoid parallel relations
- Don’t use too many different angles (45°, 90°, 135°)
Syntactic quality
- Stactic correctness: M/L = Ø
- Two types of errors
- Syntactic invalidity
- Syntactic incomplteness
- The model must be externalised
- Language properties
- Formal syntax
- Definition of additional style guidelines
- Tool-support modelling activities
- Error prevention
- Error detection
- Error correction(automatically or by suggestion (”spellcheck” ))
Semantic quality
- Quality characteristics
- Validity: M/D = Ø
- Completeness: D/M = Ø
- More realistic
- Necessary that the model is externalised and often useful that it is syntactically correct
- Language properties: Formal semantics
- Activities: Model testing (consistency checking), reuse of models, ’driving questions’, meta-model adaptation (changing the modelling language in a domain specific language (DSL))
Pragmatic quiality
- Quality characteristics
- Comprehension, do the actors understand what the modell express? (I=M)
- Necessary that the model has necessary physical quality
- Useful that the model has high empirical, and syntactic quality before evaluating pragmatic quality.
- Language properties:
- Operational semantics
- Executability
- Expilicit modelling of intention
- Activities: Inspection, visualization, filtering/views, reporting, execution/prototyping
Preveived semantic quality
- Quiality characteristics
- Perceived validity I\K = Ø
- Perceived completeness: K\I = Ø
- Useful that the model has high physical, empirical, syntactic, and pragmatic quality before investigating perceived semantic quality
- Model validation activities
Deontic quality
- The deontic quality of the model relates to
- that all statements in the model contribute to fulfilling the goals of modelling (goal validity)
- that all the goals of modelling are addressed through the model (goal completeness)
- Deontic quality introduce a context that relax wanted quality for a model on the other levels (e.g. trade-of between completeness of the model relative to cost).
- Expressed with the notion of feasible quality (particularly on the levels of semantic, pragmatic, perceived semantic and social quality)
- Goals include also aspects relative to participant learning and domain improvement
Examples of of usage of SEQUAL
- Evaluation of models
- Methodology guidelines for developing good models
- Evaluation and choice of modeling langauges in organizations (Enterprise modelling, process modelling (BPMN))
- Guidelines for developing new modeling langages
- Evaluation of a modeling language under development
- Evaluation of a modeling tool/environment
- Evaluation of a modeling method
Enterprise Architecture
Most popular frameworks: The Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture The Open Group Architectural Framework (TOGAF) The Federal Enterprise Architecture (FEA) The Gartner Methodology
What is Enterprise Architecture??
An enterprise is an organizational unit from a department to a whole corporation.
An architecture is a formal description of a system, or a detailed plan of the system at component level to guide its implementation. The structure of components, their inter-relationships, and the principles and guidelines governing their design and evolution over time.
- A formal description of an enterprise, a detailed map of the enterprise at component level to guide its changes.
- The structure of an enterprise's components, their interrelationships, and the principles and guidelines governing their design and evolution over time.
The Open Group Definition
Enterprise Architecture is about understanding all the different components that go to make up the enterprise and how those components inter-relate.
Roger Sessions Definition
An Architecture in which the system in question is the whole enterprise especially, the business process, technologies and information systems of the enterprise.
IFEAD
Gartner
A planning discipline for the enterprise that goes beyond technology choices: - Driven by the strategic intent of the enterprise - Holistic in breadth - Designed to create a future-state "road-map" - Provides flexibility and adaptability for changing business, information, and solution needs --> change enabler - A bridge between strategy and implementation.
Why we need an Enterprise Architecture
Thus the primary reason for developing an EA is to get an overview of the business ' process, systems, technology, structures and capabilities.
The organization needs an EA to provide a strategic context for the evolution of the IT system in response to the constantly changing needs of the business environment.
The organization need an EA to achieve competitive advantage.
Enterprise architecture creates a base for a solid IT strategy, but EA can be much more.
Startegic context – viktig at vi kjenner konteksten/omgivelsene for at vi skal være i stand til å posisjonere IT på en gode måte for framtidige endringer! EA legger grunnlaget for videreutvikling av IT systemer i takt med forretningens behov
Bridging the gap between Business and IT
- Enhance the relationships between IT and the business
- Reinforce IT understanding of the business strategy
- Create a process for continuous IT/business alignment.
- Enhance IT agility to support business changes.
- Create business value from IT.
Og ikke minst, EA handler om å bygge bro mellom forretningen og IT! Det var dette som var utgangspunktet for EA og som fortsatt preger mange EA rammeverk. IT: Fra change inhibitor to change enabler!
Men merk at tankesettet er like gyldig for all teknologi og alle andre sentrale grensesnitt. F.eks har EA og langtidsplan arbeidet for feltene på Norsk kontinentalsokkel mange likhetstrekk (LRP og teknologiplanen).
Overlapper med Zachman!
Value for the IT organization
- Deeper understanding of organizational strategic intent.
- Correct IT investment allocation
- Realized economies of scale
- Elimination of redundancies
- Reduced IT delivery time due to reuse
- Higher-quality decision making at all levels
- An organization that works on the right things at the right time.
- Selection of correct technologies required by the organization
- An understanding of what we are doing and why and how individual roles and responsibilities support creation of an environment for enterprise success.
EA skal legge fundamentet for alle disse mulighetene. Elimination of redundancies: applikasjonsporteføljestyring Reuse er en viktig del av EA! Higher-quality decision making at all levels: Sikrere, bedre og raskere beslutninger! Halleluja!
Zachman's Framework
The Zachman Framework is a taxonomy for describing the Enterprise and a logical structure for classifying and organizing the descriptive representation of an Enterprise
Zachman's framework has two dimensions, aspects and viewpoints. Both are critical for obtaining a holistic understanding of the enterprise
Aspects (perspectives):
- Data (what) – data needed for the enterprise to operate.
- Function (how) – concerned with the operation of the enterprise.
- Network (where) - concerned with the geographical distribution of the enterprise’s activities and resources.
- People (who) - concerned with the people who do the work, allocation of work and the people-to-people relationships.
- Time (when) – to design the event-to-event relationships (behaviour)
- Motivation (why) – depict the motivation of the enterprise. It will typically focus on the objectives and goals.
Layers or views (players):
- Scope: a "bubble chart" or Venn diagram, which depicts in gross terms the size, shape, partial relationships, and basic purpose of the final structure.
- Enterprise or business model: the design of the business or the architect’s drawing.
- System model: translations of the drawings into detailed specifications. Corresponds to a systems model by a systems analyst.
- Technology model: the architect’s model translated to a builder’s model.
- Detailed representations: detailed specifications given to programmers.
-
Functional enterprise: a system is implemented and made a part of the enterprise.
-
Strengths:
- A comprehensive taxonomy to describe the enterprise.
- Weaknesses:
- Does not give us step-by-step process for creating a new architecture.
- Does not give us an approach to show a need for a future architecture.
- Doesn't even give us much help in deciding if the future architecture we are creating is the best architecture possible.
TOGAF
TOGAF is an architectural process which provides support for the analysis of the enterprise through identifying the business, information, data and technical architectures. TOGAF also provides a comprehensive methodology (ADM) to support the enterprise architecture work
Benefits of TOGAF - Flexible about the architecture that is generated - Comprehensive process, from business requirements to applications to infrastructure. - TOGAF merely describes how to generate enterprise architecture, not necessarily how to generate a good one!
ADM
ADM describes a method for developing and managing the lifecycle of an enterprise architecture, and forms the core of TOGAF. The output of the method is identified architectures for business, information, application, data and technical aspects of the enterprise. As well as an assurance that they are aligned.
The cycle: - Framework and Principles - Define architecture principles that driv technological architectures. Choose framework and customise - Architecture Vision - Define the scope of the architecture project. Define high level business requirements - Business Architecture - Define product and/or service strategy and other aspects of the business environment - Informations Systems Architecture – Data & Applications - Define major types and soure of data to support the business. The goal is to define the data entities relevant to the enterprise. - Technical Architecture - Define the technology and technical services that will form the basis of the following implementation work. The infrastructure necesary to support the proposed new architecture - Opportunities and Solutions - Directly conserned with implementation. Identify implementation projects. Focus on projects that will deliver short term payoffs - Migration Planning - Prioritize between implementation projects. Cost and benefit analysis. Risk assessment - Implementation Governance - Ensure compliance with the defined architecture. - Architectural Change Management - Handle architecture change requests - Suggest new architecture projects - Requirements Management - Handling new and changing requirements from architecture projects, IT projects, change projects, operations, etc.
Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF
FEAF provides an organised structure and a collection of common terms by which Federal segments can integrate their respective architectures into the FEA. (Federal Enterprise Architecture)
FEA is a strategic information asset base that defines: - the business - information necessary to operate the business - technology necessary to support the business operations - processes for implementing new technologies in response to chainging needs of the business
Why FEAF? The framework allows Federal Government to accomplish: - develop their architectures - organize information - quickly develop their IT investment process
FEAF allows critical parts of the overall Enterprise, called architectural segments, to be developed individually, while integrating these segments into the larger Enterprise Architecture.
FEA is the most complete methodology with a comprehensive taxonomy, like Zachman’s framework and an architectural process like TOGAF
• FEA can be viewed as either a methodology for creating an enterprise architecture or the result of applying that process to a particular enterprise. • FEA includes everything necessary for building an enterprise architecture.
Reference Models •The goal of the reference models is to provide standardised terms and definitions for the domain of enterprise architecture and thereby facilitate collaboration and sharing across the federal government.
FEA consists of 5 reference models: - Business Reference Model (BRM): - Gives a business view of the various business functions. - Service Components Reference Model (CRM): - Gives a more IT view of systems that can support business functionality. - Technical Reference Model (TRM): - Defines the various technologies and standards that can be used in building ITsystems. - Data Reference Model (DRM): - Defines standard ways of describing data. - Performance Reference Model (PRM): - Defines standard ways of describing the value delivered by enterprise architecture. s
Gartner
The Gartner Enterprise Architecture methodology is a "practice"-Sessions. It is an ongoing process of creating, maintaining, and especially, leveraging an enterprise architecture that gives the enterprise its vitality.
Enterprise architecture is about creating a common understanding. Bringing together 3 constituents: business owners, information specialists and technology implementers. If we can unify these behind a common vision that drives the business value --> BAAAM POW, SUCCESS.
Enterprise architecture must start where an organization is going, not where it is (focus on the destination).
Recommends that an organization begins by telling the story of where its strategic direction is heading and what the business driver are to which it is responding.
GOAL: everybody understands and shares a single vision. As soon an organization has a single vision, the implications on the business-, technical-, information- and solution-architectures can be considered.
Gartner Enterprise Architecture Method
Gartner has two major facets of the Gartner EA method are: - Gartner Enterprise Architecture Process Model - Gartner Enterprise Architecture Framework
Gartner's 4 Architectural Viewpoints
The three primary viewpoints are: Business Architecture * Defines and describes the current- and future- state models of business activities (processes, assets and organization structure) Information Architecture * Defines and describes the current- and future- state models of the information value chain, key information artifacts (concepts), information flows. Technology Architecture * Defines and describes the current- and future- state models of the infrastructure and technology platforms required for the solution architecture and which enables rapid engineering, solutions development and technical innovation. Also one meta-architecture viewpoint: Solution Architecture * Combining and reconciling the loosely coupled and often conflicting viewpoint of the primary stakeholders into a unified architecture. * Having divided to conquer, we must reunite to rule. * Solution Architecture is a consistent architectural description of a specific enterprise solution * An intersection of viewpoints The solution architecture framework is a framework for creating solution architectures...
Garnter Enterprise Architecture Process Model
CRV - from strategy to business requirements
CRV --> Common Requirements Vision
Greg asks Cath to specify her visions in business (no mafakkin technical terms i'm tellin ya)
The different visions are prioritized. Then Cath decides the highest priority is "MedAMore will reduce its purchasing cists by 10% by consolidating all regional purchasing purchasing into a central system."
What us CRV??
- A Process for capturing, discussing and documenting a shared common view of the strategic requirements driving the enterprise:
- Position on the impact of environmental trends to the enterprise.
- Set of enterprise business strategies.
- Set of common strategic requirements derived from enterprise business strategies.
The CRV document is an articulation of what will drive the enterprise's future state.
Gartner - Benefits
- Process completeness - the methodology fully guides you through a step-by-step process for creating Enterprise Architecture.
- Practical guidance
- Business focus
- Does not provide a complete taxonomy.
- Not much information available about it. (HÆ? Da er dette bare oppdiktet av SOBBBAHH)
Future Enterprise
Technology Trends
- IoT and smart everything
- Big data
- Cloud computing
- Machine learning
- Automation
- Social media
- etc
Pervasiveness of Enterprises
Enterprises cannot distinguish between both internal and external stimuli. The boundaries of the enterprise could be blurred. A federation of processing capabilities and knowledge resources.
Sensing Enterprise
An enterprise anticipating future decisions by using multidimensional information captured through physical and virtual objects and providing added value information to enhance its global context awareness.
The WhatYouSenseIsWhatYouGet (WYSIWYG) Enterprise: With massive quantities of real-time information becomming pushed rather than pulled on a global scale. (tweets, sensing information, GPS data), future enterprise will be: Context aware dynamically configurable * multi-identity oriented virtual entities
A sensing enterprise is also described as "liquid" - * The data from sensors owned by one enterprise may be accessed and analyzed by other enterprises to benefit many enterprises. The may be real-time unstructured data.
The sensing enterprise needs to seamlessly sense data, perceive its meaning, make timely decisions and act.
Key Capabilities are: Awareness - to cope with dynamic market and turbulent conditions * Self-awareness - within itself; e.g. forecast production capacity, react to changes. * Environmental awareness - sense an event from its environment; e.g. detect an external driver or inhibitor in the market. Perceptivity - capability to assign a meaning to an observation internally or in its environment. Intelligence - the ability to store past behaviour patterns and using these to improve future operations. Extroversion - willingness and capability to articulate a request or need for change.
Research Challenges for Sensing Enterprises
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Grand challenge 1 - Collaborative, Real-time, Proactive business analytic-as-a-service, dealing with a radically different context for business analytics for the enterprise personnel.
- Aims to tackle research issues that will maximize the efficiency and the effectiveness of enterprises based on assets they currently possess.
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Grand challenge 2 - Innovative, web-based business models for new kinds of economies; novel business models that challenge traditional operating models; e.g. circular economy, sharing economy; novel technologies and unique innovation propositions.
- Works on the intelligence generated from the GC1 outcomes to experiment and simulate alternative business models which can be used to drive the enterprise and an entrepenuer forward
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Grand challenge 3 - Distributed, innovation-driven enterprise platforms, where platforms promote collaboration among enterprises and web entrepreneurs, to boost productivity and enable business innovation.
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Grand challenge 4 - Dynamic discovery and negotiation of the intellectual property rights' flow.
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The last two GCs help an enterprise deploy the desirable business model innovations, offering the baseline tools and platforms.
Reactive and Proactive Enterprises
Reactive - sense and respond Yo see a traffic jam ahead of you and decide to another route. Sensing enterprise - event-driven
Proactive - anticipate and take action * You anticipate that there will be a traffic jam in the morning, as is the every morning, and therefore plan to leave early or to take a different route. Proactive enterprises senses that a problem or an event may appear. E.g. observing a delay is useful, buy anticipating that a delay may occur in the production is important from a business perspective. They are using technologies that are capable of dealing with anticipation.
Proactive Anticipation
- Anticipation based on Big data
- Exploiting the power of big enterprise data by sensing the whole business ecosystem; shifting relevant business context from internal processes to the ecosystem.
- Anticipation based on actions
- Extracting the actionable meaning from data by applying advanced Big data predictive analysis; shifting the processing capabilities from real-time to ahead-of-time processing.
- Anticipation-driven optimization
- Increasing the strategic value of data analysis for decision making at all levels of the enterprise by dynamically adapting patterns of interest found in real-time Big Data streams, and enabling proactive decision making; shifting decision making focus from early warnings into business optimization.
ProaSense - Proactive sensing enterprise
- Proactive maintenance and decision support based on sensor information.
- Two use cases:
- Oil and Gas sector
- Car industry: HELLA Saturnus Slovenia
OODA decision Cycle Observe: Sensor information and Human as a sensor. Orient: Analysis and anomaly detection. Decide: optimizes recommendations for actions. Act: looks at the whole process and suggest adaptions from business perspective.
Toward proactive maintenance
One of the major areas of focus in industry today is improving equipment reliability. This is to insure that production is always to meet the demand of the marketplace.
There is no room for unplanned shutdowns or maintenance. If we understand why and equipment may break down and recognize the signs that may lead to a breakdown (anticipate breakdowns), we can do proactive maintenance. This require active monitoring - OBSERVATIONS.
Benefits of modeling
- Support human understanding of the situation and the context, to enable better decision making.
- E.g. when the enterprise decides to stop a production machine, this decision could be made in the light of the operating conditions as well as the business context.
- Increased level of preparedness for enterprises.
- Improved proactive decision making by improved understanding of the enterprise.
- Minimize unexpected and unplanned maintenance by avoiding failures and breakdowns.
- Better production planning and maintenance.
Open Service Innovation
Adding value to the product
Disruptive Forces: - Distrubuted knowledge - Knowledge is more sccessible to more people than before - More outlets to sperad their knowledge and technologies - Increased Global competition - Developing countries have growing economies - More wealth creation in developing countries - New players in the marked - Threats and consequences of the change
A commodity is a marketable item produced to satisfy wants or needs Commodity trap: - Manufacturing of products is moving to areas of the world with low costs - The product world is feeling the pressure to make products cheaper and there is less focus on the value. - The shrinking amount of time a products lasts in the market before new and improved products arrive - E.g. hard disks and disk drives are now challenged by cloud-based services.
Why innovation? Dont be product focussed. People can show much interest in a product on year, and then show little interest later since new and better products arrives with a range of services to enrich customer's experience.
The product itself is not enough, it is important to add value through services
Open Service Innovation Framework
- Think of your business as an open service business.
- Invite customers to co-create innovation with you in order to generate experiences they will value and reward.
- Use innovation to accelerate and deepen services innovation, making innovation less costly, less risky and faster.
- Transform your business model with Open Services Innovation, which will help you to profit from your innovation activities.
What is a service? - "Services are intangible; so customers play a central role in service innovation. Due to the need to engage closely with the customer to access tacit knowledge about real needs that customers will really pay for." - "Innovating needs to be done more openly. Companies cannot provide by themselves all the things that customers nee. So connecting to others and collaborating with them is vital. - It is important to think of the complete experience of the customer and not just they product that is sold.
Co-creation A creative iterative process that challenge the vies of all parties - Aim to provide a good experience for the customer. - Establish a long term relationship with the customer. - Need to understand the customers' need better
Open Innovation "In an open innovation model, firms use internal and external sources of knowledge to turn new ideas into commercial products and services that can have internal and external routes to market."
Advantages: - faster time to the market - reduced risk of innovation - less risk guessing what the market wants - Let the market tell you what they want - Innovation can come from anywhere
Transform Business Model - Go even further with open innovation by opening up your business model. - Adapt your enterprise to become a service-oriented business.
Distribution channes, interactions with customer, value chain and revenue streams may change
Service Design
Service Concept
A service concept defines the what and the how of service design and mediates between the strategic intent customer needs.
The outcome of a service design is in itself a process where value is co-created between the customer and the service organization.
What is a Service?
The application of specialized competences, through deeds, processes, and performances for the benefit of another entity or the entity itself.
Intangible products such as accounting, banking, cleaning, consultancy, education, insurance, expertise, medical treatment or transportation.
Sometime services are difficult to identify because they are closely associated with a good; such as the combination of a diagnosis with the administration of a medicine. No transfer of possession or ownership takes place when services are sold, and they cannot be stored or transported, are instantly perishable, and some into existence at the time they are bought and consumed.
Value Co-creation
Prahalad & Ramaswamy presented the idea that customers are taking active roles and that their relationships with firms are shifting. Value co-creation of value as an initiative of the customer that is dissatisfied with the available choices and therefore takes action.
Designers often use co-design to describe the process of collaboration in which co-creation can take place, so they see co-creation as subordinate to co-design. - Co-creation enables idea generation through shared knowledge and experiences and a better understanding of the user. - Co-creation as a participatory design activity and as a open innovation activity. - "Co-creation it the process of mutual firm-customer value creation. This facilitated process generates an active form of interaction and sharing between firm and end consumer, instead of the active firm, passive consumer interaction. One of the results of co-creation is that the contact between firm and customer moves away from transactional and becomes an experience."
Co-creation and Participatory Design
Participatory Design Users meet developers Gather input from users to the design of the product or service. Value creation is NOT in focus. Mostly only the digital interface is considered.
Co-creation in Service Design Starting out where the customer is and seeing the service as a service journey and how this is made up of touchpoints through which values is created. Value creation IN focus. * The whole customer experience.
Double Diamond Design
Service Journey - Concept
Starting out where customer is and seeing the service as a service journey and how this is made up of touchpoints through which value is created.
- Users/customers are involved in the value creation. Service providers use the tacit knowledge of the customers.
- A service happen over time and is made of touchpoints -the people, information, products and spaces that we encounter.
Customer Journey Definitions
- A visual representation of a customer's or a user's journey through the service.
- "customer's interactions with one or more service providers to achieve a specific goal".
- A typical customer journey map centres in on the customer and his actions and experiences from the beginning to the end of his service process.
Customer Journey - Aims
- Identify the key elements of a service.
- Understand the links between all the elements over time.
- Identify problem areas in a service or areas where new thing can be added. Create empathy with different types of users.
Service Blueprint - definitions
Service blueprints are more detailed regarding how to manage a service , and the timing of interaction between the customer and the service provider.
A detailed visual representation of the total service over time - showing the customer's journey, all the different touchpoints and channels, as well as the behind the scenes parts of a service that make it work.
Service Blueprints - Aims
- Design and problem solve the complete service experience
- Provide guidance when identifying areas to prototype.
- Communicate the service to the people delivering it as well as to users during testing.
Blueprints start with a process diagram of the steps that a customer must go through in the course of receiving the service. This is richer than the experience points.
Service Innovation can change the Business Model
- Distribution channels may change.
- Interactions with customers will be different.
- Value chain may change.
- Revenue stream change - lump payments for a product is replaced with smaller, smoother revenue stream from services.
Service Design and Enterprise Modelling
- Service design involved visualization - modelling.
- Service delivery involved several people and parts of the organization. This requires a common vision and understanding for the success of the service. Enterprise Modelling can support this work.
- Need new business model to realize the innovation.
- New organization elements, new processes, etc. to realize the business model and the service delivery.
Systemic Ideation
Definition: the act of imagining and creating new product, services, processes and business models
Systemic ideation is the first stage of innovation.
4 Thinking styles for ideation: - Derive - Learn from others - Looking outside the familiar context of the industry and looking outside of the practices themselves. - Identify another domain outside the own industry in which the same problem was successfully dealt with. - Transfer the solution strategies to your own domain. - Enhance: Thinking in patterns - Process improvements by looking at patterns - Incremental innovation through existing assets, processes, products or services by looking at the current ways of working and by performing systemic thought experiments on potential changes, guided through a series of enhancement patterns. - Design - co-create with customers - Design completely new things - example, a completely new service is offered by a company through innovation; a new model of maintenance contracts from the bus companies. - Utilize - tap into under-utilised assets - example: Walmart rents out their parking space for overnight parking to campers - 3 steps: - Identify assets that offer novel affordances. - Identify work practices that can benefit from new action possibilities. - Implement action possibilities.
Business and Value Modelling
Litta ekstranotat på toppen
Value model skal gjøre bedriften mer attraktiv for kundene. Representerer kvalitetene som produktene and selskapene verdifulle for kundene.
Business model beskriver systeme som gjør et selskap verdifult for eiere og investorer.
En business model er et sett protokoller og systemer som styrer hvordan selskapet skaper verdi, genererer omsetning og profitt. Produktet eller tjenesten bedriften selger er en del av businessmodellen. Beskriver måtene et selskap invisterer kapital på for å genere inntekt.
En Value Model beskriver måtene et selskap skreddersyr sine produkter og tjenester for å møte kundenes behov.
Businessmodellen er forskjellige fra valuemodellen ved å fokusrere på de økonomiske aspektet fra bedriftens synspunkt. Value model fokuserer på kundeopplevelse.
What is a business model?
What is a Business model? A way to create value for a business and then to capture some of that value for the enterprise
A business model describes the rationale of how an organization creates, delivers and captures value.
Business model focus on the business aspects and how the enterprise and its offerings could make money or create value whereas an enterprise model describes all the entities in an enterprise and how they relate to one another. b) A business model could inform the enterprise model of potential customers, the key activities and strategic partnerships, which may affect an enterprise's business processes and who it relates to.
Business Model Canvas
- Customer segments - Different group of people or organizations an enterprise aims to reach and serve - Value Proposition - Bundle of products and services that create value for a specific customer segment - Channels - How company communicates with and reaches its customer segments to deliver value proposition - Customer Relationships - Type of relationships a company establishes with spesific customer segments - Revenue Stream - Casha company generates from each customer segment - Key Resources - The most important assets required to make a business model work - Key Activities - The most important things a company must do to make a business model work - Key Partnerships - Network of partners or suppliers that make the business model work - Cost Structure - Cost incurred in operating a business model
Value Propositions
The value Propositions describes the bundle of products and services that creat value for a specific customer segment.
4 keyquestions: - Value Propositions - What exites your customer? - Customer - Value - Value Architecture - How do we create the value? - Offer - Distribution and Communication Channels - Value Chain - Core Capabilities - Partner - Revenue Model - How do we earn money? - Cost Structure - Revenue Sources - Team & Values - Who is on our team? What values do we live? - Team - Values
Lean Canvas
The main objective with Lean Canvas was making it as actionable as possible while staying entrepreneurfocused.
Understand the problem --> Define the best possible solution --> Identify key metrics --> try to identify your unfair advantage.
GUEST LECTURES
Making Sense of Organizations
- Organizations organically emerge out of the communication patterns that develop in the course of doing business and in response to the host of environmental variables in dynamically changing business landscapes.
- Enterprises are instances of complex adaptive systems, having many interacting sub-components whose interactions yield complex behaviors.
- These dynamic interactions at the local level lead to new emergent organizational structures.
Organizations change and emerge over time
Enterprise Architecture
- Enterprise Architecture typically involved both textual graphical representations that comprise an integrated set of composite models that are normally built using of the major EA tools.
- Once the models are contained in a tool it allows decision makes in an organization or extended enterprise the ability to query across all models the rippling effects of any actual or proposed transformation.
Architecting VS Engineering
How do we represent architectures
- Standard Architecture Frameworks
- Zachman Framework
- DoD Architecture Framework
- Common Approach to Federal Enterprise Architecting
- The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF)
- And fuckloads more...
Each has strengths designed for specific purposes. All of the frameworks separate; Ontology - Terms describing architecture elements, and Methodology - A set if steps to perform architecting.
What is an enterpise? - Any organization or group of organizations that share a set of common goals.
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Value model skal gjøre bedriften mer attraktiv for kundene. Representerer kvalitetene som produktene and selskapene verdifulle for kundene.
Business model beskriver systeme som gjør et selskap verdifult for eiere og investorer.
En business model er et sett protokoller og systemer som styrer hvordan selskapet skaper verdi, genererer omsetning og profitt. Produktet eller tjenesten bedriften selger er en del av businessmodellen. Beskriver måtene et selskap invisterer kapital på for å genere inntekt.
En Value Model beskriver måtene et selskap skreddersyr sine produkter og tjenester for å møte kundenes behov.
Businessmodellen er forskjellige fra valuemodellen ved å fokusrere på de økonomiske aspektet fra bedriftens synspunkt. Value model fokuserer på kundeopplevelse.
Social quality